The spectrum of sanctuary cities in the United States: Contrasting the genesis and practices of proimmigrant local policies
El espectro de ciudades santuario en Estados Unidos: Los contrastes en la génesis y las prácticas de las políticas locales proinmigrantes
https://doi.org/10.21670/ref.1908029
Keywords:
sanctuary cities, immigration policy, US local immigrationAbstract
The so called sanctuary cities are actually the main source of opposition to anti-immigrant federal policies in the United States. The central argument of this cross case study is that the category of sanctuary agglutinates a set of laws, policies and informal practices of different nature, with varied political genesis and different degrees of insurgency. This article argues that in-deep study of the context framing each different kind of sanctuary city helps to explain the existence of a contrasting spectrum. With the aims to contrast them, three representative categories within the spectrum are analyzed: sanctuary of rhetoric, informal sanctuary, and welcoming sanctuary. This research concludes that the most representative sanctuary practices —the most contestative and with the highest degree of scalability— are linked to the need of the city to defend funding access and to protect its political autonomy; but also, they are linked to the capacity of organized migrants to make alliances with local political stakeholders.Resumen
Las denominadas ciudades santuario son actualmente la principal fuente de oposición a las políticas federales antiinmigrantes en Estados Unidos. El argumento central de este estudio cross caso, es que la categoría santuario aglutina un conjunto de leyes, políticas y prácticas informales de diferente naturaleza, con génesis políticas variadas y con diferentes grados de insurgencia. Este artículo sostiene que el estudio a profundidad del contexto en el que se enmarca cada tipo de santuario puede explicar la existencia de un espectro tan contrastante. Para diferenciarlas se proponen tres categorías representativas dentro del espectro: los santuarios de retórica, los santuarios de facto y los santuarios de bienvenida. Este estudio concluye que las prácticas santuario más representativas —con mayor insurgencia y grado de escalabilidad— están ligadas a la necesidad de la ciudad de defender su acceso a fondos y proteger su autonomía política; pero también, a la capacidad de los migrantes organizados para hacer alianzas con actores políticos locales.References
Activista I. (Abril de 2017). Entrevista de Estefanía Cruz Lera/ activista de Chicago [transcripción], Coalición de Illinois por los Derechos de los Inmigrantes y los Refugiados, Chicago, Estados Unidos.
Activista II. (Agosto de 2017). Entrevista de Estefanía Cruz Lera/ activista [transcripción], Santa Ana, Estados Unidos.
Activista III. (Agosto de 2017). Entrevista de Estefanía Cruz Lera/ activista [transcripción], Los Ángeles, Estados Unidos, Estados Unidos.
Anti-Registry Program Act. Asamblea General del Estado de Ilinois. 24 de agosto de 2018. Recuperado de http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/billstatus.asp?DocNum=3488&GAID=14&GA=100&DocTypeID=SB&LegID=111560&SessionID=91
Bauder, H. (2016). Sanctuary Cities: Policies and Practices in International Perspective. International Migration, 55(2), 174–187. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12308
Bender, S. y Arrocha, W. (Eds.). (2017). Compassionate Migration and Regional Policy in the Americas. Londres, Inglaterra: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bilke, C. (2009). Divided We Stand, United We Fall: A Public Policy Analysis of Sanctuary Cities’ Role in the “Illegal Immigration” Debate. Indiana Law Review, 42(1), 165-193.
California State Auditor. (2016). The CalGang Criminal Intelligence System. Recuperado de https://www.auditor.ca.gov/pdfs/reports/2015-130.pdf
California Values Act (SB54). Senado del Estado de California. 5 de octubre de 2017. Recuperado de http://www.iceoutofca.org/ca-values-act-sb54.html
Cárdenas, G. (Mayo de 2017). Voces de migrantes [archivo de video]. Recuperado de https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Ga22GaZ5ig
Chand, D. E. y Schreckhise, W. D. (2015). Secure Communities and Community Values: Local Context and Discretionary Immigration Law Enforcement. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 41(10), 1621–1643. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2014.986441
Cook, M. L. (2013). ls Incorporation of Unauthorized Immigrants Possible? Inclusion and Contingency for Nonstatus Migrants and Legal Immigrants. En J. Hochschild, J. Chattopadhyay, C. Gay y M. Jones-Correa (Eds.), Outsiders no More? Models of Immigrant Political Incorporation (pp. 43–63). Nueva York, Estados Unidos: Oxford University Press.
Cornelius, W. A. (2010). Introduction. En M. W. Varsanyi (Ed.), Taking Local Control: Immigration Policy Activism in U.S. Cities and States (pp. vii–viii). Standford, California: Standford University Press.
Cruz, E. (2016). Young Immigrants Association and the Future Latino Leadership in the United States: Dreamer´s Social Capital and Political Engagement. Norteamérica, 11(2), 165-192. https://doi.org/10.20999/nam.2016.b007
Cunningham, C. (2017). Sanctuary Lost? Exposing the Reality of the “Sanctuary-City” Debate & Liberal States-Rights’ Litigation. Wayne Law Review, 63(2)1-72.
Department of Homeland Security. (1996). Delegation of Immigration Authority Section 287(g) Immigration and Nationality Act. Recuperado de https://www.ice.gov/287g
Eisinger, P. (1998). City Politics in an Era of Federal Devolution. Urban Affairs Review, 33(3), 308-325. https://doi.org/10.1177/107808749803300304
Filomeno, F. A. (2017). Theories of Local Immigration Policy. Reino Unido: Palgrave Macmillan.
Glick, N. y Çaglar, A. (2009). Towards a Comparative Theory of Locality in Migration Studies: Migrant Incorporation and City Scale. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 35(2), 177-202. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830802586179
Gonzalez, B., Collingwood, L. y El-Khatib, S. O. (2017). The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration. Urban Affairs Review, 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087417704974
Harwood, S. y Myers, D. (2002). The Dynamics of Immigration and Local Governance in Santa Ana. Policy Studies Journal, 30, 70-91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.2002.tb02130.x
Hoekstra, M. S. (2017). Governing Difference in the City: Urban Imaginaries and the Policy Practice of Migrant Incorporation. Territory, Politics, Governance, 6(3), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622671.2017.1306456
Hopkins, D. J. (2010). Politicized Places: Explaining Where and When Immigrants Provoke Local Opposition. American Political Science Review, 104(1), 40-60. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055409990360
Huang, X. y Liu, C. Y. (2016). Welcoming Cities: Immigration Policy at the Local Government Level. Urban Affairs Review, 54(1), 3-32. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087416678999
Illinois Trust Act. Asamblea General del Estado de Illinois. 28 de agosto de 2017. Recuperado de http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/ilcs3.asp?ActID=2117&ChapterID=61
Kent, S. L. y Carmichael, J. T. (2017). Municipal Law Enforcement Policy on Illegal Immigration Stops: Do Social Factors Determine how Aggressively Local Police Respond to Unauthorized Immigrants? Sociological Inquiry, 87(3), 421-448. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12155
Levine, J. R. y Gershenson, C. (2014). From Political to Material Inequality: Race, Immigration, and Requests for Public Goods. Sociological Forum, 29(3), 607-627. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12106
Lieberman, R. C. (2013). Ideas and Institutions in Immigrant Political Incorporation. En J. Hochschild, J. Chattopadhyay, C. Gay y M. Jones-Correa (Eds.), Outsiders no More? Models of Immigrant Political Incorporation (pp. 82-94). Nueva York, Estados Unidos: Oxford University Press.
Lyons, C., Velez, M. B. y Santoro, W. A. (2013). Neighborhood Immigration, Violence, and City-Level Immigrant Political Opportunities. American Sociological Review, 78(4), 604–632. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122413491964
Mollenkopf, J. (2013). Dimensions of Immigrant Political Incorporation. En J. Hochschild, J. Chattopadhyay, C. Gay y M. Jones-Correa (Eds.), Outsiders no More? Models of Immigrant Political Incorporation (pp. 107–118). Nueva York, Estados Unidos: Oxford University Press.
Paik, A. N. (2017). Abolitionist futures and the US sanctuary movement. Race & Class, 59(2) 1-23.
New Americans Plan. Office of the New Americans, Chicago. 4 de diciembre de 2012.
Partnership for a New American Economy. (Agosto de 2016). The Contributions of New Americans in Colorado. Recuperado de http://research.newamericaneconomy.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/nae-co-report.pdf
Passel, J. S. y Cohn, D. (2017). 20 metro areas are home to six-in-ten unauthorized immigrants in U.S. Pew Research Center. Recuperado de http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/02/09/us-metro-areas-unauthorized-immigrants/
Paxton, K. (Diciembre de 2017). [Conferencia de prensa]. San Antonio, Estados Unidos.
Public Safety Enforcement Priorities Act, Denver City Code, 14 de julio de 2017.
Ramakrishnan, K. S. y Wong, T. K. (2007). Immigration Policies go Local: The Varying Responses of Local Governments to Undocumented Immigration. University of California, Riverside.
Ramírez-Rosa, C. (Mayo de 2017). Entrevista de Estefanía Cruz Lera/ Concejal de Chicago [transcripción], Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México-Chicago, Estados Unidos.
Ridgley, J. (2008). Cities of Refuge: Immigration Enforcement, Police, and the Insurgent Genealogies of Citizenship in U.S. Sanctuary Cities. Urban Geography, 29(1), 53-77. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.29.1.53
Robbins, L. (18 de julio de 2018). New York City and State File Suit Over Grants Linked to ICE Cooperation. Recuperado de https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/18/nyregion/sanctuary-new-york-city-state-lawsuit-immigration.html
Safe Zones Act. Asamblea General del Estado de Ilinois. 1 de diciembre de 2017. Recuperado de http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/BillStatus.asp?DocTypeID=HB&DocNum=426&GAID=14&SessionID=91&LegID=99918
Saldaña, R. (Septiembre de 2018). [Conferencia de prensa]. San Antonio, Estados Unidos.
San Francisco Approves Bill to Designate it a Sanctuary (24 de diciembre de 1985). New York Times. Recuperado de https://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/24/us/san-francisco-approves-bill-to-designate-it-a-sanctuary.html
Schiller, N. G., Çaglar, A. y Guldbrandsen, T. C. (2006). Beyond the Ethnic Lens: Locality, globality, and Born-again Incorporation. American Ethnologist, 33(4), 612–633. https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.2006.33.4.612
Serrato, J. (6 de diciembre de 2017). Chicago Tribune Admits Gang Database Error that Enabled ICE Raid. The Chicago Tribune. Recuperado de https://www.chicagotribune.com/hoy/ct-chicago-police-admits-gang-database-error-20171206-story.html
Sessions, J. (2017). Attorney General Sessions Delivers Remarks on Sanctuary Policies. Estados Unidos: The United States Department of Justice.
Steil, J. P. y Vasi, I. B. (2014). The New Immigration Contestation: Social Movements and Local Immigration Policy Making in the United States, 2000-2011. American Journal of Sociology, 119(4), 1104-1155. https://doi.org/10.1086/675301
Stoltz, N., Hamilton, N. y Loucky, J. (2009). The Sanctuary Movement and Central American Activism in Los Angeles. Latin American Perspectives, 36(6), 101-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X09350766
Texas Senate Bill 4 (SB4), Texas Capitol. (15 de noviembre de 2016). Recuperado de https://capitol.texas.gov/tlodocs/85R/billtext/pdf/SB00004I.pdf
Thanawala, S. (1 de agosto de 2018). Court Strikes Down Trump Push to Cut 'Sanctuary City' Funds. The Associate Press. Recuperado de https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-01/urgent-us-appeals-court-trump-sanctuary-cities-order-is-illegal
The United States Department of Justice (USDJ). (2017). Justice Department Sends Letters to 29 Jurisdictions Regarding Their Compliance with 8 U.S.C. 1373. Recuperado de https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-sends-letters-29-jurisdictions-regarding-their-compliance-8-usc-1373
Trump, D. (24 de enero de 2017). If Chicago doesn't fix the horrible “carnage” going on, 228 shootings in 2017 with 42 killings (up 24% from 2016), I will send in the Feds! Recuperado de https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/824080766288228352
United States Citizenship and Immigration Services. (2019). Estatus de Protección Temporal. Recuperado de https://www.uscis.gov/es/TPS
United States Congress. (2001). United States of America: Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 (USA Patriot Act). Recuperado de https://www.refworld.org/docid/3dea43144.html
Varsanyi, M. W. (2011). Neoliberalism and Nativism: Local Anti-Immigrant Policy Activism and an Emerging Politics of Scale. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 35(2), 295-311. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2010.00958.x
Varsanyi, M. W., Lewis, P. G., Provine, D. M. y Decker, S. (2011). A Multilayered Jurisdictional Patchwork: Immigration Federalism in the United States. Law and Policy, 34(2), 138-158. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9930.2011.00356.x
Welcoming Ordinances. Chicago City Council. 13 de septiembre de 2012.
